Effects of dietary amines around the gut and its vasculature. a safe alternative to drugs, such as amphetamine or methylphenidate, which are accompanied by many undesirable side effects. On the food processing end, PEA can be detected in food either as a result of microbial metabolism or thermal processing. PEA’s presence in food can be used as an indicator HTH-01-015 of bacterial contamination. which is the second-largest family of seed plants and is comprised of trees, shrubs, vines, herbs (such as clover), and vegetables (such as beans and peas). The various different species found within this family have been used as food, green manure, and for medicinal purposes (Sanchez-Blanco et al., 2012). A hypothesis was formulated that plant synthesized PEA may serve as a defense mechanism against insects and foraging animals (Smith, 1977). PEA has also been found in the brains of humans and other mammals (Paterson et al., 1990; Philips et al., 1978), which is facilitated by its high solubility in plasma and its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (Oldendorf, 1971). Like its -methylated derivative, amphetamine, PEA has stimulant effects which lead to the release of so called biogenic amines, including dopamine and serotonin (Bailey et al., 1987; Rothman & Baumann, 2006). Unlike amphetamine, PEA has difficulties maintaining high concentrations in the human body, due to its oxidative deamination to phenylacetic acid by the enzyme B monoamine oxidase (MAO) (Yang & Neff, 1973). Phenylacetic acid,has an effect that is similar to the activity of the natural endorphins, an effect that is known as a runner’s high. Due to its impact on the levels of several feel good hormones (see above), PEA has recently gained popularity as a nutritional supplement that is sold by numerous health stores to improve mood. Since it also decreases the amount of water intake, it aids weight loss efforts (Hoffman et al., 2006). Naturodoc describes PEA as an immediate shot of happiness, pleasure, and emotional wellbeing (http://www.naturodoc.com), Serenity Station describes the effects of PEA as feeling happier, more alive and even having a better mood and attitude (http://www.serenity-station.com). Altogether, PEA appears to have a number of positive effects on human health without the risks of its structural relatives. 1.3 Chemical Synthesis of PEA Two different pathways that lead to the chemical synthesis of PEA have HTH-01-015 been established in the 40s and 50s of the past century. First, PEA is produced by reduction of a nitrile into an amine (Robinson & Snyder, 1955). Specifically, 1 kg of benzyl cyanide is mixed with 1 tablespoon of the Raney-Nickel catalyst in a calorimeter bomb. The formation of secondary amines in this reaction is reduced by the addition of ammonia. The reaction occurs at 13.9 Mpa and 130C under hydrogen, the cooled down liquid is removed from the catalyst by filtration. This procedure has a yield of about 860 to 890 g of HTH-01-015 PEA, equaling 83 to 87%. A second, simpler way of producing PEA is to reduce -nitrostyrene with lithium aluminum hydride in ether (Nystrom & Brown, 1948). The experimental procedure that employs the use of lithium aluminum in reduction reactions follows the mechanism used in a Grignard synthesis. -nitrostyrene is added to the previously prepared lithium aluminum hydride in ether while stirring. This results in an alcoholate precipitate, which thickens the solution requiring more ether to be added. Finally, using acid hydrolysis the metal alcoholate is decomposed and the product can be isolated and extracted from the ether. Recent literature focuses on the biological synthesis of PEA, rather than the chemical one. 1-phenylethylamine can be synthesized by overexpressing -transaminase (Cardenas-Fernandez et al., 2012). Likewise, the PEA biosynthetic enzyme from can be expressed in methylphenidate) that block the dopamine receptor (Lieberman et al., 1987). A new perspective is given by the TAAR1 receptor (Illustration 3). TAAR1 activation improves the symptoms that are associated with both schizophrenia and depression (in rodent and primate models), without causing the range of negative effects that.[PubMed] [Google Scholar]Marcus DA, Scharff L, Turk D, HTH-01-015 Gourley LM. the food processing end, PEA can be detected in food either as a result of microbial metabolism or thermal processing. PEA’s presence in food can be used as an indicator of bacterial contamination. which is the second-largest family of seed plants and is comprised of trees, shrubs, vines, herbs (such as clover), and vegetables (such as beans and peas). The various different species found within this family have been used as food, green manure, and for medicinal purposes (Sanchez-Blanco et al., 2012). A hypothesis was formulated that plant synthesized PEA may serve as a defense mechanism against insects and foraging animals (Smith, 1977). PEA has also been found in the brains of humans and other mammals (Paterson et al., 1990; Philips et al., 1978), which is facilitated by its high solubility in plasma and its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (Oldendorf, 1971). Like its -methylated derivative, amphetamine, PEA has stimulant effects which lead to the release of so called biogenic amines, including dopamine and serotonin (Bailey et al., 1987; Rothman & Baumann, 2006). Unlike amphetamine, PEA has difficulties maintaining high concentrations in the human body, due to its oxidative deamination to phenylacetic acid by the enzyme B monoamine oxidase (MAO) (Yang & Neff, 1973). Phenylacetic acid,has an effect that is similar to the activity of the natural endorphins, an effect that is known as a runner’s high. Due to its impact on the levels of several feel good hormones (see above), PEA has recently gained popularity as a nutritional supplement that is sold by numerous health stores to improve mood. Since it also decreases the amount of water intake, it aids weight loss efforts (Hoffman et al., 2006). Naturodoc describes PEA as an immediate shot of happiness, pleasure, and emotional wellbeing (http://www.naturodoc.com), Serenity Station describes the effects of PEA as feeling happier, more alive and even having a better mood and attitude (http://www.serenity-station.com). Altogether, PEA appears to have a number of positive effects on human health without the risks of its structural relatives. 1.3 Chemical Synthesis of PEA Two different pathways that lead to the chemical synthesis of PEA have been established in the 40s and 50s of the past century. First, PEA is produced by reduction of a nitrile into an amine (Robinson & Snyder, 1955). Specifically, 1 kg of benzyl cyanide is mixed with 1 tablespoon of the Raney-Nickel catalyst in a calorimeter bomb. The formation of secondary amines in this reaction is reduced by the addition of ammonia. The reaction occurs at HTH-01-015 13.9 Mpa and 130C under hydrogen, the cooled down liquid is removed from the catalyst by filtration. This procedure has a yield of about 860 to 890 g of PEA, equaling 83 to 87%. A second, simpler way of producing PEA is to reduce -nitrostyrene with EIF2Bdelta lithium aluminum hydride in ether (Nystrom & Brown, 1948). The experimental procedure that employs the use of lithium aluminum in reduction reactions follows the mechanism used in a Grignard synthesis. -nitrostyrene is added to the previously prepared lithium aluminum hydride in ether while stirring. This results in an alcoholate precipitate, which thickens the perfect solution is requiring more ether to be added. Finally, using acid hydrolysis the metallic alcoholate is definitely decomposed and the product can be isolated and extracted from your ether. Recent literature focuses on the biological synthesis of PEA, rather than the chemical one. 1-phenylethylamine can be synthesized by overexpressing -transaminase (Cardenas-Fernandez et al., 2012). Similarly, the PEA biosynthetic enzyme from can be indicated in methylphenidate) that block the dopamine receptor (Lieberman et al., 1987)..